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CONTENTS Preface xiii Chapter 1 Elementary Materials Science Concepts 3 1.1 Atomic Structure 3 1.2 Bonding and Types of Solids 7 1.2.1 Molecules and General Bonding Principles 7 1.2.2 Covalently Bonded Solids: Diamond 9 1.2.3 Metallic Bonding: Copper 11 1.2.4 Ionically Bonded Solids: Salt 12 1.2.5 Secondary Bonding 15 1.2.6 Mixed Bonding 18 1.3 Kinetic Molecular Theory 21 1.3.1 Mean Kinetic Energy and Temperature 21 1.3.2 Thermal Expansion 27 1.4 Molecular Velocity and Energy Distribution 30 1.5 Heat, Thermal Fluctuations, and Noise 34 1.6 Thermally Activated Processes 39 1.7 The Crystalline State 43 1.7.1 Types of Crystals 43 1.7.2 Crystal Directions and Planes 49 1.7.3 Allotropy and the Three Phases of Carbon 54 1.8 Crystalline Defects and Their Significance 56 1.8.1 Point Defects: Vacancies and Impurities 57 1.8.2 Line Defects: Edge and Screw Dislocations 60 1.8.3 Planar Defects: Grain Boundaries 63 1.8.4 Crystal Surfaces and Surface Properties 64 1.8.5 Stoichiometry, Nonstoichiometry, and Defect Structures 66 1.9 Single-Crystal Czochralski Growth 67 1.10 Glasses and Amorphous Semiconductors 69 1.10.1 Glasses and Amorphous Solids 69 1.10.2 Crystalline and Amorphous Silicon 72 1.11 Solid Solutions and Two-Phase Solids 74 1.11.1 Isomorphous Solid Solutions: Isomorphous Alloys 74 1.11.2 Phase Diagrams: Cu-Ni and Other Isomorphous Alloys 75 1.11.3 Zone Refining and Pure Silicon Crystals 80 1.11.4 Binary Eutectic Phase Diagrams and Pb-Sn Solders 81 Additional Topics 86 1.12 Bravais Lattices 86 Defining Terms 89 Questions and Problems 93 Chapter 2 Electrical and Thermal Conduction in Solids 101 2.1 Classical Theory: The Drude Model 102 2.1.1 Metals and Conduction by Electrons 102 2.2 Temperature Dependence of Resistivity: Ideal Pure Metals 108 2.3 Matthiessen's Rule 111 2.3.1 Matthiessen's Rule and the Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity () 111 2.3.2 Solid Solutions and Nordheim's Rule 121 2.4 Mixture Rules and Electrical Switches 125 2.4.1 Heterogeneous Mixtures 125 2.4.2 Two-Phase Alloy (Ag-Ni) Resistivity and Electrical Contacts 128 2.5 The Hall Effect and Hall Devices 130 2.6 Thermal Conduction 134 2.6.1 Thermal Conductivity 134 2.6.2 Thermal Resistance 139 2.7 Electrical Conductivity of Nonmetals 140 2.7.1 Semiconductors 140 2.7.2 Ionic Crystals and Glasses 145 Additional Topics 148 2.8 Skin Effect: HF Resistance of a Conductor 148 2.9 Thin Metal Films and Integrated Circuit Interconnections 152 Defining Terms 154 Questions and Problems 156 Chapter 3 Elementary Quantum Physics 163 3.1 Photons 163 3.1.1 Light as a Wave 163 3.1.2 The Photoelectric Effect 166 3.1.3 Compton Scattering 170 3.1.4 Black Body Radiation 172 3.2 The Electron as a Wave 175 3.2.1 De Broglie Relationship 175 3.2.2 Time-Independent Schridinger Equation 178 3.3 Infinite Potential Well: A Confined Electron 182 3.4 Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle 187 3.5 Tunneling Phenomenon: Quantum Leak 190 3.6 Potential Box: Three Quantum Numbers 197 3.7 Hydrogenic Atom 199 3.7.1 Electron Wavefunctions 199 3.7.2 Quantized Electron Energy 205 3.7.3 Orbital Angular Momentum and Space Quantization 208 3.7.4 Electron Spin and Intrinsic Angular Momentum S 213 3.7.5 Total Angular Momentum J 216 3.8 The Helium Atom and the Periodic Table 218 3.8.1 He Atom and Pauli Exclusion Principle 218 3.8.2 Hund's Rule 220 3.9 Stimulated Emission and Lasers 222 3.9.1 Stimulated Emission and Photon Amplification 222 3.9.2 Helium-Neon Laser 225 3.9.3 Laser Output Spectrum 228 Additional Topics 231 3.10 Optical Fiber Amplifiers 231 Defining Terms 233 Questions and Problems 236 Chapter 4 Modern Theory of Solids 241 4.1 Hydrogen Molecule: Molecular Orbital Theory of Bonding 241 4.2 Band Theory of Solids 247 4.2.1 Energy Band Formation 247 4.2.2 Properties of Electrons in a Band 252 4.3 Semiconductors 255 4.4 Electron Effective Mass 259 4.5 Density of States in an Energy Band 261 4.6 Statistics: Collections of Particles 268 4.6.1 Boltzmann Classical Statistics 268 4.6.2 Fermi-Dirac Statistics 269 4.7 Quantum Theory of Metals 271 4.7.1 Free Electron Model 271 4.7.2 Conduction in Metals 274 4.8 Fermi Energy Significance 276 4.8.1 Metal-Metal Contacts: Contact Potential 276 4.8.2 The Seebeck Effect and the Thermocouple 278 4.9 Thermionic Emission and Vacuum Tube Devices 284 4.9.1 Thermionic Emission: Richardson-Dushman Equation 284 4.9.2 Schottky Effect and Field Emission 287 4.10 Phonons 291 4.10.1 Harmonic Oscillator and Lattice Waves 291 4.10.2 Debye Heat Capacity 296 4.10.3 Thermal Conductivity of Nonmetals 300 4.10.4 Electrical Conductivity 302 Additional Topics 304 4.11 Band Theory of Metals: Electron Diffraction in Crystals 304 Defining Terms 313 Questions and Problems 315 Chapter 5 Semiconductors 321 5.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors 322 5.1.1 Silicon Crystal and Energy Band Diagram 322 5.1.2 Electrons and Holes 324 5.1.3 Conduction in Semiconductors 326 5.1.4 Electron and Hole Concentrations 328 5.2 Extrinsic Semiconductors 335 5.2.1 n-Type Doping 336 5.2.2 p-Type Doping 338 5.2.3 Compensation Doping 340 5.3 Temperature Dependence of Conductivity 344 5.3.1 Carrier Concentration Temperature Dependence 344 5.3.2 Drift Mobility: Temperature and Impurity Dependence 349 5.3.3 Conductivity Temperature Dependence 352 5.3.4 Degenerate and Nondegenerate Semiconductors 354 5.4 Recombination and Minority Carrier Injection 355 5.4.1 Direct and Indirect Recombination 355 5.4.2 Minority Carrier Lifetime 358 5.5 Diffusion and Conduction Equations, and Random Motion 364 5.6 Continuity Equation 370 5.6.1 Time-Dependent Continuity Equation 370 5.6.2 Steady-State Continuity Equation 372 5.7 Optical Absorption 375 5.8 Luminescence 379 5.9 Schottky Junction 381 5.9.1 Schottky Diode 381 5.9.2 Schottky Junction Solar Cell 385 5.10 Ohmic Contacts and Thermoelectric Coolers 388 Additional Topics 393 5.11 Direct and Indirect Bandgap Semiconductors 393 5.12 Indirect Recombination 402 Defining Terms 403 Questions and Problems 406 Chapter 6 Semiconductor Devices 415 6.1 Ideal pn Junction 416 6.1.1 No Applied Bias: Open Circuit 416 6.1.2 Forward Bias: Diffusion Current 421 6.1.3 Forward Bias: Recombination and Total Current 427 6.1.4 Reverse Bias 429 6.2 pn Junction Band Diagram 434 6.2.1 Open Circuit 434 6.2.2 Forward and Reverse Bias 435 6.3 Depletion Layer Capacitance of the pn Junction 438 6.4 Diffusion (Storage) Capacitance and Dynamic Resistance 440 6.5 Reverse Breakdown: Avalanche and Zener Breakdown 442 6.5.1 Avalanche Breakdown 443 6.5.2 Zener Breakdown 444 6.6 Bipolar Transistor (BJT) 446 6.6.1 Common Base (CB) dc Characteristics 446 6.6.2 Common Base Amplifier 451 6.6.3 Common Emitter (CE) dc Characteristics 456 6.6.4 Low-Frequency Small-Signal Model 457 6.7 Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) 460 6.7.1 General Principles 460 6.7.2 JFET Amplifier 467 6.8 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) 470 6.8.1 Field Effect and Inversion 470 6.8.2 Enhancement MOSFET 473 6.8.3 Threshold Voltage 477 6.8.4 Ion Implanted MOS Transistors and Poly-Si Gates 479 6.9 Light Emitting Diodes (LED) 481 6.9.1 LED Principles 481 6.9.2 Heterojunction High-Intensity LEDs 485 6.9.3 LED Characteristics 486 6.10 Photovoltaic Device Principles 488 Additional Topics 495 6.11 Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers and Lasers 495 Defining Terms 497 Questions and Problems 500 Chapter 7 Dielectric Materials and Insulation 507 7.1 Matter Polarization and Relative Permittivity 508 7.1.1 Relative Permittivity: Definition 508 7.1.2 Dipole Moment and Electronic Polarization 509 7.1.3 Polarization Vector P 512 7.1.4 Local Field Eloc and Clausius-Mossotti Equation 515 7.2 Electronic Polarization: Covalent Solids 517 7.3 Polarization Mechanisms 519 7.3.1 Ionic Polarization 519 7.3.2 Orientational (Dipolar) Polarization 520 7.3.3 Interfacial Polarization 523 7.3.4 Total Polarization 524 7.4 Frequency Dependence: Dielectric Constant and Dielectric Loss 526 7.5 Gauss's Law and Boundary Conditions 534 7.6 Dielectric Strength and Insulation Breakdown 540 7.6.1 Dielectric Strength: Definition 540 7.6.2 Dielectric Breakdown and Partial Discharges: Gases 541 7.6.3 Dielectric Breakdown: Liquids 542 7.6.4 Dielectric Breakdown: Solids 543 7.7 Capacitor Dielectric Materials 550 7.7.1 Typical Capacitor Constructions 550 7.7.2 Dielectrics: Comparison 554 7.8 Piezoelectricity, Ferroelectricity, and Pyroelectricity 557 7.8.1 Piezoelectricity 557 7.8.2 Piezoelectricity: Quartz Oscillators and Filters 563 7.8.3 Ferroelectric and Pyroelectric Crystals 566 Additional Topics 571 7.9 Electric Displacement and Depolarization Field 571 Defining Terms 576 Questions and Problems 579 Chapter 8 Magnetic Properties and Superconductivity 589 8.1 Magnetization of Matter 589 8.1.1 Magnetic Dipole Moment 589 8.1.2 Atomic Magnetic Moments 591 8.1.3 Magnetization Vector M 592 8.1.4 Magnetizing Field or Magnetic Field Intensity H 595 8.1.5 Magnetic Permeability and Magnetic Susceptibility 596 8.2 Magnetic Material Classifications 600 8.2.1 Diamagnetism 600 8.2.2 Paramagnetism 602 8.2.3 Ferromagnetism 603 8.2.4 Antiferromagnetism 603 8.2.5 Ferrimagnetism 604 8.3 Ferromagnetism Origin and the Exchange Interaction 604 8.4 Saturation Magnetization and Curie Temperature 607 8.5 Magnetic Domains: Ferromagnetic Materials 609 8.5.1 Magnetic Domains 609 8.5.2 Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy 610 8.5.3 Domain Walls 612 8.5.4 Magnetostriction 613 8.5.5 Domain Wall Motion 614 8.5.6 Polycrystalline Materials and the M versus H Behavior 615 8.5.7 Demagnetization 619 8.6 Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials 621 8.6.1 Definitions 621 8.6.2 Initial and Maximum Permeability 622 8.7 Soft Magnetic Materials: Examples and Uses 623 8.8 Hard Magnetic Materials: Examples and Uses 626 8.9 Superconductivity 631 8.9.1 Zero Resistance and the Meissner Effect 631 8.9.2 Type I and Type II Superconductors 634 8.9.3 Critical Current Density 637 8.10 Superconductivity Origin 640 Additional Topics 641 8.11 Magnetic Recording Materials 641 8.12 Josephson Effect 647 8.13 Flux Quantization 649 Defining Terms 650 Questions and Problems 654 Chapter 9 Optical Properties of Materials 663 9.1 Light Waves in a Homogeneous Medium 664 9.2 Refractive Index 667 9.3 Dispersion: Refractive Index-Wavelength Behavior 669 9.4 Group Velocity and Group Index 672 9.5 Magnetic Field: Irradiance and Poynting Vector 675 9.6 Snell's Law and Total Internal Reflection (TIR) 677 9.7 Fresnel's Equations 680 9.7.1 Amplitude Reflection and Transmission Coefficients 680 9.7.2 Intensity, Reflectance, and Transmittance 685 9.8 Complex Refractive Index and Light Absorption 690 9.9 Lattice Absorption 694 9.10 Band-to-Band Absorption 695 9.11 Light Scattering in Materials 698 9.12 Attenuation in Optical Fibers 699 9.13 Polarization 702 9.14 Optical Anisotropy 704 9.14.1 Uniaxial Crystals and Fresnel's Optical Indicatrix 705 9.14.2 Birefringence of Calcite 708 9.14.3 Dichroism 709 9.15 Birefringent Retarding Plates 710 9.16 Optical Activity and Circular Birefringence 712 Additional Topics 714 9.17 Electro-optic Effects 714 Defining Terms 717 Questions and Problems 720 Appendix A Major Symbols and Abbreviations 724 Appendix B Elements to Uranium 730 Appendix C Constants and Useful Information 733 Index 735 PREFACE The textbook represents a first course in electronic materials and devices for undergraduate students. With the additional topics in the text's CD-ROM, it can also be used in a graduate introductory course in electronic materials for electrical engineers and material scientists. The third edition is an updated and revised version of the second edition based on reviewer comments, with new topics such as conduction in insulators, Hall effect in semiconductor, phonons, and thermal properties; new problems; a number of new worked examples; and a new chapter on the optical properties of materials. The second edition is one of the few books on the market that has a broad coverage of electronic materials that today's scientists and engineers need. I believe that the revisions have improved the rigor without sacrificing the original semiquantitative approach that both the students and instructors liked. ORGANIZATION AND FEATURES In preparing the text, I tried to keep the general treatment and various proofs at a semiquantitative level without going into detailed physics. Many of the problems have been set to satisfy engineering accreditation requirements. Some chapters in the text have additional topics to allow a more detailed treatment, usually including quantum mechanics or more mathematics. Cross referencing has been avoided as much as possible without causing too much repetition, which allows for various sections to be skipped as desired by the reader. Some important features are: The principles are developed with the minimum of mathematics and with the emphasis on physical ideas. Quantum mechanics is part of the course but is presented without its difficult mathematical formalism. There are more than 130 worked examples, most of which have a practical significance. Students learn by way of examples, however simple, and to that end nearly 150 problems have been provided. Even simple concepts have examples to aid learning. Most students would like to have clear diagrams to help them visualize the explanations and understand concepts. The text includes numerous illustrations (over 470) that have been professionally prepared to reflect the concepts and aid the explanations in the text. The end-of-chapter questions and problems are graded so that they start with easy concepts and eventually lead to more sophisticated concepts. Difficult problems are identified with an asterisk (*). Many practical applications with diagrams have been included. There is a regularly updated on-line extended Solutions Manual for all instructors; simply locate the McGraw-Hill website for this textbook. There is a glossary, Defining Terms, at the end of each chapter that defines some of the concepts and terms used, not only within the text but also in the problems. The end of each chapter includes a section Additional Topics to further develop important concepts, to introduce interesting applications or to prove a theorem. These topics are intended for the keen student and can be used as part of the text for a two-semester course. The text is supported by McGraw-Hill's textbook website that contains resources, such as solved problems, for both students and instructors. Please feel free to write to me with your comments. Although I may not be able to reply to each individual comment and suggestion, I do read all my e-mail messages and take note of suggestions and comments. CD-ROM ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES: THIRD EDITION The book has a CD-ROM that contains all the figures as large color diagrams in a common portable document format (PDF) that can be printed on nearly any color printer to make overhead projector transparencies and class-ready notes for the students so they won't have to draw the diagrams during the lectures. The diagrams have been also put into PowerPoint for directly delivering the lecture material from a computer. In addition, there are numerous Selected Topics and Solved Problems to extend the present coverage. For example, Elementary Mechanical Properties allows instructors to include this topic in their courses. Semiconductor Fabrication now appears as a selected topic in the CD. I strongly urge students to print out the CD's Illustrated Dictionary of Electronic Materials and Devices: Student Edition, to look up new terms and use the dictionary to refresh various concepts. This is probably the best feature of the CD. <Front matter> ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My gratitude goes to my past and present graduate students and postdoctoral research fellows, especially, Randy Thakur (vice president, STEAG, San Jose), Brad Polischuk (Anrad, Montreal), Vish Aiyah (Intel, Folsom), Don Scansen (Semiconductor Insights, Ottawa), Reza Tanha (Texas Instruments, Dallas), Chris Haugen (TRLabs, Edmonton), Zahangir Kabir, George Belev, Bud Fogal, and Daniel De Forrest, who have kept me on my toes and read various sections of this book. A number of reviewers read various portions of the manuscript and provided extensive comments. A number of instructors also wrote to me with various comments. I incorporated the majority of the suggestions, which I believe make this a better book. I'd like to personally thank them all for their invaluable critiques, some of whom include: Letin Aktik, University of Sherbrooke, Quebec Fary Ghassemlooy, Sheffield-Hallam University Furrukh Khan, Ohio State University Michael Kozicki, Arizona State University Hilary Lackritz, Purdue University, Indiana Aaron Peled, Center for Technological Education, Israel Charbel Tannous and Jacek Gieraltowski, Brest University, France Mehmet Günes, Izmir Institute of Technology, Izmir Linda Vanasupa, California Polytechnic State University Pierre Pecheur, University of Nancy, France Mark De Guire, Case Western Reserve University, Ohio Stacy Gleixner and Emily L. Allen, San Jose State University, California David Cahill, University of Illinois Allen Meitzler, University of Michigan, Dearborn Richard Hornsey, University of Waterloo John Sanchez, University of Michigan David Cann, Iowa State University Karen Kavanagh, Simon Fraser University. S. O. Kasap "The important thing in science is not so much to obtain new facts as to discover new ways of thinking about them." SirWilliam Lawrence Bragg To Galer, my mother; Nicolette, my wife; and Alp, my dad </Front matter>
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Electric engineering -- Materials.
Electric apparatus and appliances.