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PART I The Negro Under the Slave Regime I. Significance of the African Background 3 Our Knowledge Concerning African Backgrounds 4 Size of Plantation and African Survivals 7 Adjustment of Slaves to New Environment 8 Destruction of African Family 10 African Religious Survivals 14 Other Phases of Culture 19 II. Evolution of the Slave Status 22 Status of Negro Gradually Differentiated from that of White Servants 23 Slave Status of Negroes Becomes Fixed 26 The Plantation System of Agriculture 29 Expansion of the Plantation System During the Colonial Period 30 An Interlude of Idealism and Declining Productivity 34 Cotton Becomes King 36 Growth of the Slave Population 38 Growing Conflict Between North and South 39 III. The Plantation as a Social Institution 44 Types of Plantations and Size of Slaveholdings 45 The Domestic Slave Trade 46 Character of Racial Contacts on the Plantation 48 The Social Ritual of the Plantation 50 Religious Instruction and Moral Discipline of Slaves 52 Division of Labor and Social Status Among Slaves 53 IV. The Free Negro 59 Manumission of Slaves 60 Growth and Distribution of Free Negroes 62 xv PAGE Mixed-Bloods Conspicuous Among Free Negroes 67 Economic Status of Free Negroes 69 Educational Status of Free Negroes 72 Church Organization of Free Negroes 74 Free Negroes and the Assimilation Process 76 Development of Race Consciousness Among Free Negroes 79 V. Slave Revolts and the Underground Railroad 82 Resistance of Negroes to Enslavement 83 Three Important Slave Insurrections 87 Why Slave Insurrections Failed 90 Fugitive Slaves 93 The Underground Railroad 96 John Brown at Harper's Ferry 98 PART 2 Racial Conflict and New Forms of Accommodation VI. The Civil War and Emancipation 103 Conservative and Radical Republicans 104 The Enlistment of Negro Soldiers 105 The Emancipation Proclamation 106 The Disruption of the Plantation Regime 109 Social Disorganization Among the Freedmen 112 The Freedmen's Bureau 114 The Establishment of the Negro as a Free Man 117 VII. Reconstruction: Period of Acute Race Conflict 123 Status of Negro and National Politics 124 The Black Codes 126 Status of Negro Becomes a National Issue 129 Rights of the Negro Established by Military Rule 131 Negro Equality vis-a-vis Social and Economic Realities 132 The Negro in Politics 135 The Negro's Struggle for Land 140 The Negro's Struggle for Education 141 The Racial Conflict 143 VIII. New Forms of Accommodation 147 The Restoration of "White Supremacy" 148 Class Conflict and the Negro 151 PAGE The Negro Seeks a Promised Land 154 "Rise of the Poor Whites" and Legislation of Negro's Inferior Status 155 Racial Conflict and New Forms of Accommodation 159 After Fifty Years of Freedom 164 PART 3 The Negro Community and Its Institutions IX. The Growth and Distribution of the Negro Population 171 Growth of Negro Population in Different Regions 172 Births and Deaths 177 Sex Ratio 180 Age Distribution 182 Black and Mulatto Elements 185 The "Black Belt" of the South 187 Urbanization of the Negro Population 190 X. Rural Negro Communities 197 Rural Negro Settlements in the North 197 The Rural Negro Population and Southern Regions 198 Rural-Cultural Regions of the Cotton Belt 200 Physical Character of Negro Communities in Plantation Area 204 Land Tenure Among Negro Farmers 207 Plane of Living in Plantation Areas 209 Family Life in the Plantation Area 213 Churches, Lodges, and Organizations for Mutual Aid 216 Education 218 Recreation 219 Race Relations in Plantation South 220 Southern Louisiana and the Lower Atlantic Coastal Plain 223 The Tidewater-Piedmont Region 225 Other Regions 227 XI. Urban Negro Communities 229 Urban Negro Communities in the South 232 Smaller Cities and Towns 232 PAGE Negro Communities in Large Cities 237 Occupational Status of Negroes in Large Cities 240 Urban Negro Communities in Border States 242 Washington, D. C. 245 Occupational Status of Negroes in Border Cities 249- Race Relations in Border Cities 251 Urban Negro Communities in the North and West 252 The South Side in Chicago 256 Negro Harlem in New York City 262 Occupational Status and Income of Negroes in Northern Cities 267 Urban Negro Communities in the West 269 XII. Social and Economic Stratification 273 Social Distinctions Among the Slaves 274 Social Stratification Among the Free Negroes 275 Social Stratification Following Emancipation 276 Social Stratification in Rural Communities 278 Emergence of Social Classes 279 The Development of Socioeconomic Classes 282 Impact of New Class Distinctions Upon Older Classes 283 Occupational Differentiation and Social Classes in Southern and Border Cities 285 Development of Socioeconomic Classes in Northern Cities 289 The Upper Class 292 Upper-Class Values 29& The Middle Class 300 The Lower Class 303 Importance of Social Stratification 304 XIII. The Negro Family 306 The Negro Family During Slavery 306 Family Life Among the Free Negroes 311 Disorganization and Reorganization of Negro Family Life After Emancipation 313 High Proportion of Families with Female Heads 316 The Negro Family on the Plantation 318 The Negro Family in Southern Towns and Cities 321 The Negro Family in Border Cities 324 The Negro Family in Northern Cities 325 Family Life Among the Various Classes 328 PAGE XIV. The Negro Church 334 The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts 335 The Proselyting Efforts of the Methodists and Baptists 338 Participation of Slaves in the Religious Life of Their Masters 339 Religious Self-Expression Among the. Slaves 343 The Founding of Independent Negro Church Organi- zations 345 The Growth of Negro Denominations After the Civil War 347 Negro Churches in the South 349 The Impact of the North on the Religion of Negro Migrants 352 The Increase in Negro Sects and Cults in Northern Cities 356 Changes in the Orthodox Denominations 360 XV. Mutual Aid and Fraternal Organizations 367 Paternalism and Individual Expression of Charity Under the Slave Regime 367 Development of Mutual Aid Among Free Negroes 368 The Organization of Secret Societies 370 Development of Secret Societies After Emancipation 371 Mutual Aid Societies and Fraternal Organizations Among Rural Negroes 375 Effect of Urbanization on Fraternal Organizations 378 Emergence of Greek Letter Societies Among "The Talented Tenth" 381 XVI. Business Enterprise 387 Negro Business Ventures Before the Civil War 387 The Freedmen's Bank and Negro Business 389 Negro Leaders Become Advocates of "Negro Business" 391 The National Negro Business League 393 The Negro in the Field of Banking 395 Negro Insurance Companies 397 Retail Stores Conducted by Negroes 401 Negro Businesses in Northern Cities 404 Why Negro Business Has Remained Insignificant 409 PART 4 Intellectual Life and Leadership PAGE XVII. Elementary and Secondary Schools 417 Education of the Negro Before the Civil War 418 Development of Negro Schools After Emancipation 420 Attitude of the South Toward State Supported Schools for Negroes 422 The "Rise of the Poor Whites" and Inequalities in Education for the Negro 425 R61e of Philanthropy in Negro Education 427 Inequalities in Educational Provisions for Negroes 429 Status of Negro Education During the Period of the New Deal 431 Discrimination in Apportionment of Federal Funds 438 Educational Problems of Negroes in the North 440 Educational Advantages Enjoyed by Negro Children in the North 444 Education of Negroes During World War II 446 Education of Negroes as a National Problem 448 XVIII. Institutions of Higher Education 450 Colleges for Negroes Founded Before the Civil War 450 Development of Negro Colleges Following the Civil War 451 The Establishment of Hampton Institute and Tuskegee Institute 454 Land-Grant Colleges for Negroes 456 Higher Education of the Negro and His Status in the South 456 Industrial Education versus Liberal Education 458 A Critical Evaluation of Industrial Education for Negroes 460 Character of Negro Institutions of Higher Education up to the First World War 462 Development of Higher Education for Negroes After World War I 467 Meager Public Support of the Higher Education of Negroes in the South 471 Graduate Education in Negro Institutions 473 PAGE Unique Position of Howard University in Higher Edu- cation of Negroes 475 Negro Institutions of Higher Education and Race Relations 477 Present Status of Negro Institutions of Higher Edu- cation 480 Recent Attacks on Segregation in Higher Education 485 XIX. Negro Press and Literature 492 Early Literary Efforts of the Negro 493 Negro Literary Expression from 1790 to 1840 494 Negro Literary Efforts Directed Against Slavery 498 The "Literature" of the Slaves 501 Barren Years of Negro Literary Expression 502 Negro Literary Expression During the Years of Ac- commodation 503 Dawn of a New Spirit in Negro Literature 506 Negro Renaissance Following the Mass Migrations 507 The Expansion of the Negro Press Following the Mass Migrations 509 The Negro Press and World War II 512 The Present R61le of the Negro Press 514 Literary Expression Since the Negro Renaissance 516 XX. Social Movements and Race Consciousness 520 Social Movements Before the Civil War 521 The Niagara Movement and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People 523 The National Urban League 526 The Mass Migrations to Northern Cities 527 The Garvey Movement 528 Developments Between World Wars 531 Social Movements During and Following World War II 535 XXI. Negro Leaders and the Negro Intelligentsia 540 Leaders of Negroes Before the Civil War 541 Emergence of Negro Leaders After Emancipation 542 From Frederick Douglass to Booker T. Washington 544 The Development of a Functional Leadership 547 Religious Leaders 549 Leaders in Social Welfare 550 Political Leaders 552 PAGE Labor Leaders 553 Intellectual Leaders 555 Bases of the Paucity of First-Rate Intellectual Negro Leaders 559 PART 5 Problems of Adjustment XXII. Health and Survival 567 Health of the Negro During Slavery 567 Increase in Negro Mortality Following Emancipation 568 Health of Whites and Negroes in Country as a Whole 569 Health of Negroes and Whites in a Southern State 574 Health and Survival of Negroes in Cities 577 Housing and the Health of Negroes 581 Social and Economic Factors Affecting Negro Health 584 Effect of Racial Segregation and Discrimination 586 Is Race a Factor in the Health and Survival of Negroes? 590 XXIII. Unemployment and Poverty 593 Employment of Negroes During Slavery 594 Emergence of Unemployment and Poverty Among Negroes After Emancipation 595 Effects of Mass Migration to Northern Cities on Em- ployment of Negroes 598 Effects of the Depression on Employment of Negroes 599 Effects of New Deal on Economic Status of the Negro 600 Significance of Social Security 605 Economic Status of Negro Just Prior to World War II 606 Changes in Economic Status of Negro During World War II 613 Economic Status of the Negro Since World War II 618 Summary 621 XXIV. Family Disorganization 623 Explanations Advanced to Account for Family Disor- ganization Among Negroes 624 Disorganization of Family Life Following Emancipation 627 Family Disorganization in Urban Areas 630 Family Disorganization among "Middle Class" Negroes 633 PAGE Family Disorganization and Housing of Negroes 634 General Effects of Family Disorganization on Negro Community 636 Summary 637 XXV. Crime and Delinquency 638 Studies of Negro Crime Before Mass Migrations to the North 639 Negro Crime Between World Wars 640 Crime in the Harlem Community in New York City 643 Negro Crime and the Administration of Justice 645 Most Recent Studies of Negro Crime 646 Juvenile Delinquency Among Negroes 649 Negro Juvenile Delinquency in Relation to the Organi- zation of the Urban Community 651 XXVI. Mental Deficiency and Insanity 654 Federal Census Data on Negro Feebleminded 654 Mental Deficiency Among Negro Draftees 655 Federal Census Data on Negro Insanity 657 Recent Studies of Negro Insanity 660 Insanity Among Negro Draftees 661 A Critical Analysis of Insanity Among Negroes 662 XXVII. Race Relations 665 Nature of Race Prejudice 665 Influence of Cultural Factors on Race Prejudice 667 Competition and Race Prejudice 669 Personal Factors in Race Prejudice 670 Discriminations Arising from Race Prejudice 671 Effects of Discrimination on the Negro 674 Emergence of the Negro as a Minority 678 Dealing with Race Prejudice and Public Discriminations 681 CONCLUSION XXVIII. Prospects for Integration of the Negro Into American Society 687 Changes in the Negro 688 Changes in the Negro Community 690 Integration: From Secondary to Primary Group Contacts 692 PAGE Changes in the Organization of American Life 696 The Democratic Creed and Christian Ideals 699 Color and Democracy 701 A New America in a New World 703 A Classified Bibliography 707 Index of Names 751 Index of Subjects 759